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Elizabeth Franklin-Best P.C.

Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) – Federal Prisons Overview

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) is the U.S. Department of Justice agency responsible for the custody and care of federal inmates. It is sometimes called FBOP. It serves as the Federal Department of Corrections, managing a nationwide system of federal prisons. The BOP incarcerates over 156,000 federal prisoners across 37 states and territories, overseeing over 120 federal prison institutions (including penitentiaries, correctional institutions, and prison camps). The U.S. Bureau of Prisons system confines offenders convicted of federal crimes, ranging from white-collar offenders to violent felons.

In fiscal year 2021, federal courts sentenced 57,377 criminal defendants for federal offenses – an 11.3% decrease from 2020. Most federal prisoners are confined in low- or medium-security facilities, with smaller numbers in minimum-security camps and high-security penitentiaries. As of May 2025, about 36.1% of inmates were in low-security federal correctional institutions and 33.1% in medium-security institutions. Minimum-security BOP Federal Prison Camps (FPCs) hold around 14.4% of the population, while high-security United States Penitentiaries (USPs) hold roughly 12.3%.

Federal prisons vary by security level and inmate population. The BOP seeks to place inmates in appropriate facilities and provide programs to rehabilitate offenders. The sections below discuss the federal prison system, including a directory of prisons, the BOP’s organizational structure, security levels, inmate programs, population demographics, and the history of the Federal Bureau of Prisons.

Table of contents

Federal Bureau Of Prisons

Federal Bureau of Prisons Directory

Are you looking for a specific Federal Bureau of Prisons institution, a list of federal prisons, or their contact information? Check out our Federal Prison Directory, which profiles every federal correctional facility by name and location.

If you need to locate a federal inmate or confirm a release date, please visit our Inmate Locator page. To find a residential reentry center (i.e., halfway house) for an inmate nearing release, see our Residential Reentry Management (RRM) page for halfway house information.

For a comprehensive printed guide profiling every federal prison, see Christopher Zoukis’ Directory of Federal Prisons (Middle Street Publishing, 2020). This book provides detailed information about every U.S. federal prison, including interviews with inmates serving time in many facilities.

For in-depth information about daily life in federal facilities, you may also consult Christopher Zoukis’ Federal Prison Handbook: The Definitive Guide to Surviving the Federal Bureau of Prisons (Middle Street Publishing, 2017).

Federal Prisons by State

Use the links below to explore federal prisons by state. The BOP operates institutions in 37 states and Puerto Rico:

Federal Bureau of Prisons – Federal PrisonsDownload

Federal Bureau of Prisons Organization

Federal Bureau of Prisons Administration and Leadership

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) operates with a well-defined, top-down administrative structure designed to ensure consistent policy, effective oversight, and efficient management of its nationwide network of federal correctional facilities. Understanding the BOP’s leadership and organizational framework offers insight into how the agency maintains order, accountability, and direction across its diverse operations.

Leadership Hierarchy

At the top of the BOP’s leadership is the Director, who serves as the chief executive and is responsible for all agency operations. William K. Marshall III is the current Director of the BOP. The Director reports directly to the U.S. Attorney General and provides strategic direction, policy guidance, and oversight for the federal prison system. Supporting the Director are several high-level officials, including:

  • Deputy Director: Assists the Director in managing daily operations and acts on their behalf when needed.
  • Associate Deputy Director: Oversees specific administrative divisions and ensures coordination among departments.
  • Chief of Staff: Manages executive communications and special projects and supports the Director’s priorities.

These leaders work closely with division heads and regional directors to implement national policies and ensure that institutional standards are consistently applied throughout the system.

Past Directors of the Federal Bureau of Prisons

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) has been shaped by a succession of directors overseeing its evolution, policy development, and response to new challenges. Below is a summary of past BOP directors and their contributions:

  • Sanford Bates (1930–1937): The first director, Bates established foundational policies and set the tone for professional prison administration, focusing on humane treatment and centralized oversight.
  • James V. Bennett (1937–1964): Bennett’s long tenure was marked by modernization and expansion. He emphasized rehabilitation and the professionalization of correctional staff.
  • Myrl E. Alexander (1964–1970): Alexander focused on research-driven reforms and the development of inmate programs, advancing the BOP’s rehabilitative mission.
  • Norman A. Carlson (1970–1987): Carlson led the Bureau through significant growth, responding to rising inmate populations and introducing new security protocols.
  • J. Michael Quinlan (1987–1992): Quinlan’s leadership coincided with the federal prison boom of the late 1980s and early 1990s, and he managed rapid system expansion and operational challenges.
  • Kathleen Hawk Sawyer (1992–2003, 2019–2020): The first woman to lead the BOP, Hawk Sawyer prioritized inmate programs, staff development, and reentry initiatives. She returned briefly as interim director in 2019.
  • Harley G. Lappin (2003–2011): Lappin focused on security improvements, infrastructure expansion, and implementing new correctional technologies.
  • Charles E. Samuels Jr. (2011–2016): Samuels emphasized staff training and safety, and modernizing correctional practices to meet evolving needs.
  • Mark S. Inch (2017–2018): Inch’s brief tenure involved addressing staffing shortages and operational efficiency.
  • Hugh Hurwitz (Acting, 2018–2019): As acting director, Hurwitz navigated transitions and continued ongoing reforms.
  • Michael D. Carvajal (2020–2022): Carvajal led the BOP during the COVID-19 pandemic, overseeing emergency responses and health protocols.
  • Colette S. Peters (2022–2025): Peters focused on transparency, accountability, and continued reform within the federal prison system, including expanding First Step Act programs.

This lineage of directors reflects the BOP’s ongoing adaptation to new correctional philosophies, societal expectations, and operational demands.

Central Office Structure

The BOP’s Central Office in Washington, DC, houses the executive leadership and primary administrative divisions. The Central Office is responsible for developing policies, setting agency priorities, and overseeing all federal prisons. Key divisions within the Central Office include:

  • Administrative Division: Manages agency finances, procurement, and logistical support.
  • Correctional Programs Division: Develops operational policies, oversees inmate management, and ensures compliance with federal standards.
  • Health Services Division: Directs medical, mental health, and wellness programs for inmates.
  • Human Resource Management Division: Handles staff recruitment, training, and personnel matters.
  • Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR): Oversees inmate work programs and production operations.
  • Information, Policy, and Public Affairs Division: Coordinates internal and external communications, policy development, and public outreach.
  • National Institute of Corrections: Provides training, technical assistance, and research for the corrections field.
  • Office of General Counsel: Offers legal guidance and representation for the agency.
  • Program Review Division: Conducts audits and evaluations to ensure institutional compliance and efficiency.
  • Reentry Services Division: Manages programs that prepare inmates for successful reintegration into society.

Each division is led by an Assistant Director or equivalent, who reports to the Director or Deputy Director.

Regional Offices

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) is organized into six geographic regions to effectively manage its extensive network of federal prisons across the United States. Each region is overseen by a Regional Director, who acts as the primary link between the Central Office in Washington, DC, and the individual institutions within their jurisdiction.

Key Responsibilities of Regional Offices

  • Oversee the daily operations and security of all federal prisons within the region
  • Implement national BOP policies and adapt them to address region-specific needs
  • Provide training, guidance, and oversight to institutional staff
  • Monitor compliance with agency standards and support quality assurance initiatives
  • Address local operational challenges, including staffing, safety, and resource allocation
  • Facilitate communication between wardens, Central Office leadership, and other regional offices

Regional Directors play a crucial role in ensuring that BOP policies are consistently applied while allowing flexibility to address unique circumstances in their respective areas. They supervise the wardens of all federal institutions in their region and coordinate the rollout of new programs, emergency responses, and staff development initiatives.

The Six BOP Regions

  • Mid-Atlantic Region (MXR): Covers federal prisons in the District of Columbia, Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia.
  • North Central Region (NCR): Includes facilities in Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wisconsin.
  • Northeast Region (NER): Encompasses Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont.
  • South Central Region (SCR): Oversees institutions in Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas.
  • Southeast Region (SER): Responsible for prisons in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Puerto Rico, and South Carolina.
  • Western Region (WXR): Covers Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.

By dividing the country into these regions, the BOP ensures more efficient management, localized problem-solving, and consistent standards application throughout its nationwide system.

Facility-Level Administration and Careers

At each federal prison, daily operations are managed by a diverse team of professionals working together to ensure a safe, orderly, and rehabilitative environment. While the Warden serves as the chief administrator, effective facility management relies on the coordinated efforts of staff across multiple departments.

Key Roles in Facility Operations

  • Correctional Officers: These staff members are the institution’s primary line of security and supervision. They oversee inmate movement, conduct security checks, enforce facility rules, and respond to emergencies. Prison guards play a vital role in maintaining order and ensuring the safety of both inmates and staff.
  • Case Managers and Counselors: Focused on inmate rehabilitation and reentry, these staff develop individualized case plans, monitor progress in programs, and provide support for personal and behavioral challenges. They help inmates prepare for release and serve as critical contact points for families and outside agencies.
  • Education and Vocational Instructors: Responsible for delivering academic, literacy, and job training programs, education staff help inmates earn GEDs, learn English, or gain trade skills that can support employment after release.
  • Healthcare Providers: Nurses, doctors, mental health professionals, and dental staff address the physical and mental health needs of inmates. They provide routine care, manage chronic conditions, and offer counseling or specialized treatment as needed.
  • Administrative and Support Staff: This group includes human resources, finance, facility maintenance, food service, and clerical support employees. Their behind-the-scenes work ensures the facility’s infrastructure, supplies, and daily operations run smoothly.

Department Heads and Leadership

Associate Wardens and department heads oversee these key operational areas, ensuring each department works effectively and collaboratively. The facility’s Captain leads all security and correctional operations, while Unit Managers supervise housing units and coordinate with other staff to address inmate needs.

Regardless of role, every staff member contributes to the facility’s overall mission—balancing security with opportunities for inmate growth and rehabilitation. This collaborative approach is essential for the successful operation of each federal prison.

Coordination and Oversight

The BOP’s administrative structure is designed to ensure efficient communication and accountability at every level. Policies and directives flow from the Central Office to Regional Offices and then to individual facilities. At the same time, information and feedback from institutions are relayed upward, allowing leadership to identify issues and adapt strategies as needed.

This tiered approach helps maintain consistent standards, supports effective decision-making, and provides the flexibility to address the unique challenges of managing an extensive, complex correctional system.

By clearly defining roles and responsibilities at every level, the BOP’s administration and leadership structure supports its mission of operating safe, secure, and humane correctional facilities across the United States.

Related Agencies and Programs: Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR) & National Institute of Corrections (NIC)

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) does not operate in isolation. Several specialized agencies and programs work alongside or under the BOP to support its mission, provide services, and advance best practices in corrections. Two of the most significant are Federal Prison Industries, Inc. (commonly known as UNICOR) and the National Institute of Corrections (NIC). Understanding their roles offers valuable insight into how the federal prison system is supported, improved, and connected to broader correctional efforts nationwide.

Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR)

Federal Prison Industries, operating under the trade name UNICOR, is a government-owned corporation created to provide job opportunities and vocational training for federal inmates. Its primary purpose is to help incarcerated individuals develop practical work skills, increase their chances of successful reentry, and reduce recidivism.

UNICOR operates factories and production lines within many federal prisons, employing inmates in various industries—including manufacturing office furniture, textiles, electronics, and other goods and services primarily for federal agencies. Participation in UNICOR programs allows inmates to earn modest wages, learn valuable trades, and demonstrate a work ethic that can benefit them upon release.

Beyond workforce development, UNICOR helps maintain safer prison environments by reducing inmate idleness and promoting positive routines. Its programs are designed to minimize competition with private businesses by focusing on government contracts and unique service areas.

National Institute of Corrections (NIC)

The National Institute of Corrections is a federal agency dedicated to supporting corrections professionals and advancing effective correctional policies across the United States. While it is part of the Department of Justice, NIC serves all levels of government—federal, state, and local—by providing training, technical assistance, and research on best practices in corrections.

NIC offers educational programs, leadership development, and resources for correctional staff, administrators, and policymakers. It also researches and disseminates information on emerging issues, innovative programs, and evidence-based practices in corrections. By fostering collaboration and knowledge-sharing, NIC helps correctional agencies improve safety, efficiency, and outcomes for staff and those in custody.

The Importance of Collaboration

Both UNICOR and NIC play crucial roles in supporting the BOP’s broader objectives. UNICOR addresses inmate rehabilitation and workforce readiness, while NIC strengthens the professional development of correctional staff and the effectiveness of correctional operations nationwide. Their efforts, in partnership with the BOP, contribute to safer institutions, more successful inmate reentry, and continuous improvement in the field of corrections.

U.S. Federal Prison Security Levels

Every federal prison facility is assigned one of five security levels. The security level reflects the institution’s design, perimeter security, staff-to-inmate ratio, and the custody level of inmates housed there:

Minimum-Security Prisons

Federal Prison Camps (FPCs) typically have little or no perimeter fencing, a low staff-to-inmate ratio, and relatively free inmate movement. Minimum-security inmates are usually those with short sentences and non-violent histories.

While the Bureau has many satellite prison camps. The following are the only stand-alone Federal Prison Camps:

Low-Security Federal Prisons

Low-security Federal Correctional Institutions (FCIs) have fenced perimeters (often double-fenced with razor wire) and a higher staff-to-inmate ratio than camps. Inmates may have somewhat higher security needs or longer sentences than camp inmates, but they generally pose less risk than medium-security prisoners.

The Bureau operates the following low-security federal prisons:

Medium-Security Federal Prisons

Medium-security FCIs are surrounded by double fences or walls, electronic detection systems, and armed perimeter patrols. These facilities have a higher staff ratio and greater internal controls. Many inmates in medium-security institutions serve longer sentences or have histories that preclude placement in lower security.

The Bureau operates the following medium-security federal prisons:

High-Security Federal Prisons

High-security institutions are known as United States Penitentiaries (USPs). These prisons have reinforced perimeters (e.g., 30- to 50-foot concrete walls or multiple razor-wire fences), guard towers, and strict inmate movement control. USPs house inmates who pose the most significant security risks, including those with violent backgrounds or lengthy sentences.

The Bureau operates the following high-security federal prisons:

Administrative Security Facilities

Administrative facilities are specialized federal prisons designed to serve unique functions within the Bureau of Prisons system. Unlike standard prisons, they can house inmates from any security level, depending on their specific mission and resources. Below are the main types of administrative facilities:

  • Federal Medical Centers (FMCs): These are dedicated institutions providing advanced medical and mental health care to inmates with serious or chronic health conditions that cannot be managed at regular federal prisons.
  • Medical Center for Federal Prisoners (MCFP): This specialized medical facility offers comprehensive treatment for inmates with complex medical or psychiatric needs, often serving as a referral center for the entire federal system.
  • Federal Detention Centers (FDCs): FDCs primarily house pretrial detainees and inmates awaiting transfer, offering secure short-term custody in urban locations close to federal courts.
  • Federal Transit Center (FTC): The FTC functions as a central hub for the temporary housing and transfer of inmates in transit between institutions or court appearances.
  • Metropolitan Detention Centers (MDCs): Located in major cities, MDCs detain individuals awaiting trial or sentencing and may also hold short-term inmates serving brief sentences.
  • Metropolitan Correctional Centers (MCCs): MCCs provide secure confinement for pretrial detainees and newly sentenced inmates, typically in downtown locations, for easy access to federal courts.
  • Administrative-Maximum Security Penitentiary (ADX): ADX Florence is the nation’s highest-security prison, designed for the most dangerous federal inmates, with extreme security measures and extensive isolation.
  • Federal Correctional Complexes (FCCs): FCCs are large prison campuses that combine multiple facilities, often with different security levels, at a single location, allowing for efficient resource sharing and flexible inmate management.

This variety of administrative facilities allows the BOP to meet specialized custody, medical, and security needs across its diverse inmate population.

One unique administrative facility is the Administrative Maximum prison – ADX Florence in Colorado – the BOP’s “supermax” prison. ADX Florence is an ultra-high-security institution designed for the most dangerous offenders. This underground concrete fortress holds inmates in near-total solitary confinement and is known for housing high-profile criminals and terrorists.

The Bureau operates the following administrative security federal prisons:

Designation and Sentence Computation Center

Newly sentenced federal inmates are evaluated and assigned to institutions through the BOP’s Designation and Sentence Computation Center (DSCC). The DSCC is a centralized office in Grand Prairie, Texas, that calculates inmate sentences, oversees sentence computation (including jail-time credit and Good Conduct Time calculations), and determines the appropriate facility designation for each inmate.

During the designation process, DSCC staff consider numerous factors about the inmate and the needs of the Bureau, including:

  • Offense Type and Severity
  • Security Risk
  • Criminal History
  • Age
  • Gender
  • Medical and Mental Health Needs

Bureau-specific factors such as bed space availability, current population pressures, and special security concerns (e.g., gang affiliation, notoriety, etc.) are also weighed. Using these criteria, the DSCC assigns inmates to an initial facility that matches their security level and program needs. This centralized process helps ensure consistent placement decisions across the federal prison system.

Note that inmates can be transferred later based on classification, behavior, or program need changes. DSCC also handles transfers and updates to inmate records throughout a prisoner’s term.

Federal Prison Rehabilitation and Reentry Programs

A core part of the Federal Bureau of Prisons’ mission is rehabilitating and preparing inmates for successful reentry into society. All federal prisons offer programs and services to reduce recidivism, improve inmates’ life skills, and facilitate their transition back to the community.

By engaging in these rehabilitation programs, federal prisoners can improve themselves and increase their chances of successful reentry. The BOP’s approach is that well-managed prisons and robust programming ultimately enhance public safety. In other words, inmates leaving prison with education, job skills, treatment for addictions, and strong family/community support are far less likely to re-offend.

Alcohol and Substance Abuse Treatment

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) provides a comprehensive range of alcohol and substance abuse treatment programs designed to address the diverse needs of inmates struggling with addiction. These programs aim not only to reduce substance use and recidivism but also to promote healthier lifestyles and successful reentry into society.

  • Drug Education Class: All inmates with a documented history of substance abuse or who are convicted of a drug-related offense must participate in this foundational program. It provides basic education on the risks and consequences of drug and alcohol use and serves as a prerequisite for more intensive treatment.
  • Non-Residential Drug Abuse Treatment Program (NR-DAP): This flexible, group-based program is available at most BOP facilities. It offers ongoing counseling, relapse prevention, and skill-building sessions for inmates who do not meet the criteria for residential treatment or are awaiting placement in more intensive programs.
  • Residential Drug Abuse Treatment Program (RDAP): RDAP is the BOP’s most intensive and well-known substance abuse treatment program. It is a voluntary, 500-hour, 9-month residential program conducted in a specialized unit separate from the general population. RDAP uses evidence-based cognitive-behavioral therapy and a therapeutic community model to address the underlying causes of addiction and promote long-term recovery.
  • Eligibility: Participation is competitive. Inmates must have a verifiable substance use or alcohol abuse disorder, sufficient time left on their sentence, and meet security and behavioral criteria.
  • Benefits: Inmates who complete RDAP may qualify for up to a 12-month reduction in their sentence under 18 U.S.C. § 3621(e), as well as increased eligibility for halfway house placement. This makes RDAP one of the most sought-after rehabilitation programs in the federal prison system.
  • Support Groups: Many institutions offer peer-led support groups, such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Narcotics Anonymous (NA), providing ongoing encouragement and accountability for inmates in recovery.

The BOP’s substance abuse treatment programs are grounded in research demonstrating that effective treatment reduces rates of relapse and recidivism. By addressing addiction as a chronic, treatable condition and equipping inmates with coping strategies and life skills, these programs support the BOP’s broader mission of rehabilitation and public safety.

Educational & Vocational Training

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) is committed to providing inmates with a robust range of educational and vocational opportunities to reduce recidivism and support successful reentry into society. Educational programming in federal prisons is guided by evidence-based practices and designed to address varying levels of need, from basic literacy to advanced vocational skills.

Academic Education

All federal prisons’ Education Departments offer literacy classes and adult basic education, strongly emphasizing helping inmates achieve a General Educational Development (GED) certificate. Inmates without a high school diploma or GED must participate in these programs until they meet minimum proficiency standards. English as a Second Language (ESL) courses are also available for non-native speakers to ensure language barriers do not hinder educational progress.

Post-Secondary and Correspondence Courses

Beyond basic education, inmates can access post-secondary education through college correspondence courses, vocational certification programs, and distance learning. These opportunities allow motivated individuals to pursue higher education and specialized training, which is valuable for career advancement after release.

Vocational Training

The BOP provides hands-on vocational training in various skilled trades, preparing inmates for employment in high-demand fields. Common vocational programs include:

  • Automotive Repair
  • Building Maintenance
  • Carpentry
  • Computer Applications
  • Culinary Arts
  • Electrical Work
  • Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
  • Office Technology
  • Plumbing
  • Welding

Inmates earn industry-recognized certifications and develop practical skills that are directly transferable to the workforce.

Work Assignments

Beyond formal education and vocational training, most federal inmates participate in institutional work assignments as an essential part of daily life in prison. These jobs are assigned based on the facility’s needs and the inmate’s abilities or interests. Common work assignments include:

  • Food Service (kitchen work, meal preparation, dishwashing)
  • Facility Maintenance (cleaning, painting, repairs)
  • Laundry Services
  • Groundskeeping and Landscaping
  • Sanitation and Waste Management
  • Commissary and Warehouse Operations
  • Clerical or Administrative Support

Inmates are expected to fulfill their assigned duties reliably and efficiently, typically working several hours each weekday. Staff supervises these jobs, which are structured to promote responsibility, teamwork, punctuality, and a strong work ethic.

While wages for institutional work assignments are modest, the benefits outweigh the pay. Regular work helps inmates develop valuable soft skills, such as following instructions, problem-solving, and cooperating with others, which are crucial for post-release employment. Many assignments also introduce inmates to basic trades and workplace routines, providing experience that can be built upon through further training or education.

Participation in institutional work assignments is a core component of the BOP’s approach to rehabilitation. Through meaningful work, inmates contribute to the daily functioning of their facility, maintain productive routines, and lay the groundwork for successful reentry into the community.

Impact on Rehabilitation and Reentry

Participation in educational and vocational programs is linked to lower rates of recidivism and greater post-release success. Inmates who complete these programs are more likely to secure employment, maintain stable housing, and reintegrate successfully into their communities. The BOP’s educational initiatives underscore the agency’s belief that equipping inmates with knowledge and skills is a key component of public safety and effective correctional management.

The Federal Bureau of Prisons strives to empower inmates to make positive changes and prepare for productive, law-abiding lives after incarceration by offering a comprehensive suite of academic, vocational, and work-based learning opportunities.

Mental Health & Counseling

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) recognizes that addressing mental health and behavioral needs is essential to rehabilitation and reducing recidivism. Every federal facility is staffed with qualified Psychology Services professionals—including psychologists, counselors, and clinical social workers—who provide a full spectrum of mental health care.

Core Services

Inmates have access to mental health screening, assessment, and ongoing treatment throughout their incarceration. Services are available at varying intensity levels, from brief counseling and crisis intervention to long-term therapy for chronic conditions. Individual and group counseling sessions address various psychological and behavioral issues.

Group Programs

Evidence-based group programs allow inmates to develop coping strategies, emotional regulation, and interpersonal skills. Common group offerings include:

  • Anger Management
  • Basic Cognitive Skills
  • Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
  • Cognitive Processing Therapy
  • Criminal Thinking
  • Parenting
  • Seeking Safety (trauma and addiction)
  • Seeking Strength
  • Social Skills Training

Specialized Residential and Outpatient Programs

For inmates with more serious or complex mental health needs, the BOP operates specialized residential treatment units and offers targeted programming, such as:

  • BRAVE (for young, first-time offenders)
  • Challenge Program (for high-security inmates with substance abuse or behavioral needs)
  • Female Integrated Therapy (for women with trauma or mental health concerns)
  • Mental Health Step Down (for inmates transitioning from inpatient care)
  • Non-Residential Sex Offender Treatment Program
  • Residential Sex Offender Treatment Program
  • STAGES Program (for inmates with severe personality disorders or self-injurious behavior)

These programs are designed to provide intensive, structured care and support, often in dedicated housing units with specially trained staff.

Continuity of Care and Reentry

The BOP emphasizes continuity of care, ensuring that inmates with ongoing mental health needs receive appropriate support as they transition back into the community. Discharge planning and coordination with community mental health providers help reduce the risk of relapse or recidivism after release.

By offering comprehensive mental health and counseling services, the BOP addresses the root causes of criminal behavior, supports inmate well-being, and promotes safer, more successful reentry into society.

Family Connectivity Programs

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) recognizes that strong family connections are critical to successful rehabilitation and reentry. Maintaining meaningful relationships with loved ones supports an inmate’s emotional well-being during incarceration and significantly increases the likelihood of a positive transition back into the community.

Communication and Visitation

Inmates are encouraged to stay connected with family and friends through supervised channels, including:

  • In-Person Visitation: Approved visitors may schedule visits under structured and secure conditions to ensure safety for all.
  • Telephone Calls: Inmates can make monitored phone calls to approved contacts, allowing regular verbal communication.
  • Written Correspondence: Letters remain vital to maintaining relationships, with mail screened for security purposes.
  • Email: Many facilities offer electronic messaging through secure platforms, enabling more frequent and timely communication.

The BOP has implemented policies to facilitate contact while balancing the need for institutional security. During public health emergencies or other disruptions, the agency provides expanded telephone or video visitation options to help inmates remain in touch with their support networks.

Parenting and Family Support Programs

Recognizing the unique challenges faced by incarcerated parents, many federal prisons offer specialized parenting classes and family relationship workshops. These programs are designed to help inmates:

  • Develop effective parenting skills
  • Strengthen bonds with their children
  • Understand child development and positive discipline
  • Prepare for reunification after release

Initiatives such as the Mothers and Infants Nurturing Together (MINT) program and fatherhood workshops provide targeted support for parents, helping them maintain their roles and responsibilities despite incarceration.

Rehabilitative Impact

Research consistently shows that inmates who maintain strong family ties are more likely to succeed after release and less likely to re-offend. Family engagement can reduce feelings of isolation, support positive behavioral changes, and provide a crucial source of motivation during incarceration.

By prioritizing family connectivity, the BOP aims to foster stability, healing, and resilience among inmates, laying the groundwork for healthier relationships and more successful reintegration into society.

Religious & Recreational Activities

Federal inmates can participate in religious services and faith-based programs through the institution’s Religious Services Department.

Recreational opportunities such as intramural sports, hobby crafts, music programs, and library services are also available. While these activities might not directly relate to reentry, they help inmates manage stress, learn teamwork, and productively occupy their time, contributing to a safer and more positive prison environment.

Release Preparation & Halfway Houses

As inmates near the end of their sentences, the BOP provides Release Preparation Programs (RPP). These focus on practical reentry skills, including:

  • Resume Writing
  • Job Interviewing
  • Financial Management
  • Securing Identification Documents

Inmates who qualify may be transferred to a Residential Reentry Center (RRC) – commonly called a halfway house – for up to the last 12 months of their sentence. Halfway houses (contracted by the BOP) allow inmates to work in the community, reconnect with family, and gradually adjust to society under supervised conditions.

Some inmates may transition to home confinement (i.e., house arrest) for a portion of this reentry period. These programs, managed by the BOP’s Residential Reentry Management offices, are designed to reduce the shock of release and provide structure as inmates reintegrate.

First Step Act Initiatives

The First Step Act (FSA) of 2018 significantly expanded recidivism reduction programs and created new incentives. Under the FSA, eligible inmates can earn time credits for completing approved programs (e.g., vocational training, educational courses, substance abuse treatment, etc.). These credits can hasten transfer to a halfway house or shorten the period of incarceration.

The FSA also introduced a risk and needs assessment system (i.e., PATTERN) to tailor programming to each inmate’s criminogenic needs. As a result, the BOP has increased program offerings in areas like anger management, family relationships, and literacy.

Inmate Population and Demographics

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) oversees a diverse and evolving inmate population across its nationwide system. Understanding the characteristics of those incarcerated and the challenges faced by the BOP in managing this population is essential for grasping the realities of federal incarceration in the United States. This section explores overall trends, key demographic groups, and pressing issues such as overpopulation and responses to public health events.

By understanding the composition and challenges of the federal inmate population, stakeholders and the public can better appreciate the complexities of correctional management and the ongoing efforts to ensure safe, secure, and humane conditions within the nation’s federal prisons.

The federal inmate population has experienced significant fluctuations over the past several decades. After a period of steady growth beginning in the 1980s, primarily driven by changes in federal sentencing laws and drug enforcement policies, the number of people in BOP custody peaked in the early 2010s. Since then, the population has gradually declined, influenced by policy reforms and shifting prosecutorial priorities.

As of 2025, the BOP houses approximately 156,000 inmates in over 120 federal institutions. While this represents a decrease from previous highs, the system still manages one of the largest prison populations in the world. The majority of federal inmates are serving sentences for drug offenses, weapons violations, and other federal crimes. Most are housed in low- and medium-security facilities, with smaller numbers in minimum- and high-security institutions.

Demographic Breakdown

Gender and Age

Most federal inmates are male, accounting for over 93.5% of the population. Female inmates make up around 6.5% and are housed in designated women’s federal prisons. The average age of a federal prisoner is approximately 36 years, with most inmates falling in their 30s and 40s. The BOP also manages a small number of older inmates and a very limited number of juveniles.

Race and Ethnicity

Federal prisoners reflect a range of racial and ethnic backgrounds. Roughly 56.9% identify as White, about 38.6% as Black, and the remainder as Native American, Asian, or other backgrounds. Hispanic or Latino individuals comprise about 29.5% of the total inmate population, spanning multiple racial groups. These figures highlight persistent disparities in the federal criminal justice system.

Offense Types and Sentences

Drug-related convictions remain the leading cause of federal incarceration, representing over 43.4% of the inmate population. Other common offenses include weapons and firearms violations (22%), sex offenses (13.5%), property crimes (5%), and immigration law violations (4.9%).

Federal inmates serve sentences ranging from short-term to life. About 24.8% of inmates are serving a 5- to 10-year sentence (a typical range for drug and firearms offenses). A smaller share (around 23%) serve 10- to 20-year sentences, and an even smaller percentage (15.9%) serve 20 years to life in prison. Approximately 20.7% of federal inmates serve sentences between 0 and 5 years. Only 2.5% of federal inmates are serving natural life sentences.

Security Level

The majority of federal inmates are held in the low- and medium-security federal prisons:

  • Minimum-Security Prison Camps (FPCs): 14.4% of federal inmates
  • Low-Security FCIs: 36.1% of inmates
  • Medium-Security FCIs: 33.2% of federal prisoners
  • High-Security USPs: 12.3% of inmates
  • Administrative-Security: 4% of federal inmates

Subgroups Within the Inmate Population

Female Inmates

Women in federal custody face unique challenges and needs. The BOP operates several facilities specifically for female inmates and offers specialized programs such as prenatal care and parenting classes. Initiatives like the Mothers and Infants Nurturing Together (MINT) program support pregnant women and new mothers during incarceration. In recent years, the BOP has also expanded access to feminine hygiene products and sought to improve trauma-informed care for female inmates.

Juvenile Inmates

Juveniles represent a small fraction of the federal prison population. There are only 13 juvenile inmates in federal custody. Those under 18 at the time of their offense are typically housed in contracted juvenile facilities or in separate units to ensure they are not placed with adult inmates. The BOP follows federal guidelines to protect the rights and safety of juvenile offenders, and most are incarcerated for serious or violent crimes. Depending on their sentence and legal status, these individuals may be transferred to adult facilities upon adulthood.

Death Row Inmates

The federal death row population is housed primarily at specific high-security institutions, with men typically held at the U.S. Penitentiary in Terre Haute, Indiana, and women at the Federal Medical Center in Carswell, Texas. The number of federal inmates on death row has declined in recent years, especially following executive actions commuting many sentences to life imprisonment. Only three individuals remain under federal death sentences.

Overpopulation and Capacity Challenges

Despite recent declines, overpopulation remains a persistent issue in many federal prisons. Facilities often operate above their intended capacity, which can strain resources, infrastructure, and staff.

Overcrowding is linked to increased safety risks, limited access to programming, and challenges in maintaining humane living conditions. The BOP has addressed these issues through measures such as facility expansions, increased use of home confinement for low-risk offenders, and the transition of some inmates to halfway houses or community-based custody.

Responses to Public Health Events

Public health crises, most notably the COVID-19 pandemic, have posed significant challenges for the BOP. During the pandemic, federal prisons faced outbreaks that affected both inmates and staff, leading to changes in visitation policies, increased use of medical isolation, and efforts to expand home confinement for vulnerable populations.

The BOP implemented testing, vaccination campaigns, and other health protocols to mitigate the spread of disease within its institutions. These experiences have underscored the importance of preparedness and adaptability in managing the health and safety of a large incarcerated population.

Prison Staff Characteristics

The Federal Bureau of Prisons employs approximately 35,925 staff members nationwide. BOP staff statistics are as follows:

  • Gender: About 70.5% of BOP staff are male, while 29.5% are female.
  • Race: Around 60.2% of staff are White (non-Hispanic), approximately 21.6% are Black, and about 14.5% are Hispanic. (The remaining percentage includes other races and ethnicities.)
  • Roles: Staff positions range from correctional officers and medical professionals to teachers, counselors, administrators, and support personnel. Most correctional workers (e.g., correctional officers) are federal civil service employees rather than law enforcement officers in the traditional sense. With limited exceptions, federal prison guards do not have law enforcement authority outside the prison and do not receive federal LEO retirement benefits.

In recent years, the BOP has faced challenges with staff retention and recruitment, partly due to the demanding nature of prison work and safety concerns. Surveys have shown that BOP employees’ job satisfaction is relatively low compared to other federal agencies, reflecting issues like understaffing and prison overcrowding.

Facility Characteristics

The BOP primarily confines inmates in prisons that it owns and operates. As of 2025, approximately 92% of federal prisoners are housed in BOP-operated facilities, while the remaining inmates (roughly 8%) are in other types of custody (e.g., contracted halfway houses, home confinement, and local jails).

The Bureau also utilized privately operated prisons in the past. About a decade ago, roughly 12% of the federal inmate population was held in for-profit contract prisons run by companies like CoreCivic and The GEO Group. However, in January 2021, the Department of Justice moved to phase out private prisons. The BOP ended using privately owned prisons on November 30, 2022. As of 2025, zero federal inmates are held in private prisons. All federal offenders now reside in government-run facilities or community-based custody for reentry purposes.

Federal halfway houses (Residential Reentry Centers) and other transitional housing still play a key role in the system. Inmates in these settings are typically near release and serving the final months of their sentence under supervised, less-restrictive conditions to prepare for reentry. While not traditional prisons, these facilities fall under the purview of the BOP’s reentry management and contribute to the overall capacity of the federal correctional system. 

Chronic overcrowding has been a concern in federal prisons for decades. Even after the population has declined in recent years, many institutions operate above their rated capacity. In 2018, federal prisons were at about 110% of their design capacity on average, down from a peak of 165% in 1992. Overcrowding can strain infrastructure (many prison buildings are aging) and negatively affect safety, as noted in a 2012 GAO report. The BOP has attempted to mitigate overcrowding by expanding facilities, transferring inmates, and using home confinement for low-risk offenders. Still, maintaining safe and humane conditions with limited resources remains an ongoing challenge.

Federal Prisons

History of the Federal Bureau of Prisons

The history of federal prisons in the United States predates the BOP’s founding in 1930. Key milestones in the development of the federal prison system include:

Three Prisons Act of 1891

For most of the 19th century, individuals convicted of federal crimes were housed in state prisons or local jails due to the lack of federal facilities. By the late 1800s, the need for federal prisons had become evident. In 1891, Congress addressed this by passing the Three Prisons Act. This law authorized the establishment of three federal penitentiaries. This was the first time the U.S. government set out to build and operate its own prisons for federal offenders.

Congress was slow to implement the Act. It took six years after the law’s passage to start construction on the first of the three authorized prisons. Groundbreaking for the United States Penitentiary (USP) Leavenworth in Kansas occurred in 1897. Inmates (temporarily housed in an old military fort nearby) were used as labor to build USP Leavenworth, which took about 25 years to complete.

The second of the original federal prisons, USP Atlanta in Georgia, opened in 1902. The third, USP McNeil Island in Washington State, opened in 1909. (McNeil Island had been used as a territorial prison since 1875, but it became an official federal penitentiary in 1909.) These facilities signaled the beginning of a distinct federal prison system, although administration was still ad hoc and under the Justice Department’s general authority.

In 1928, the federal government opened the Federal Prison Camp at Alderson, West Virginia – the first federal prison for women. Alderson was a minimum-security facility (often dubbed a “prison farm”) and was built to house female offenders who previously were kept in state institutions or other arrangements. In 1934, the infamous Alcatraz Island facility in San Francisco Bay was converted from a military prison to a federal penitentiary for the nation’s most difficult prisoners. Alcatraz, known for its high security and isolation, operated as a federal prison until 1963.

The Federal Bureau of Prisons’ Creation

By the end of the 1920s, the federal government had several prisons and about 13,000 inmates in custody, but oversight was fragmented. In 1930, Congress formally created the Federal Bureau of Prisons within the Department of Justice. This new agency managed and regulated all federal penal and correctional institutions. The stated mission of the BOP was to “provide more progressive and humane care for Federal inmates, to professionalize the prison service, and to ensure consistent and centralized administration of the 11 federal prisons in operation at the time.”

When established, the Bureau oversaw 11 federal prisons and quickly began to expand. By the end of 1930, the federal prison system had grown to 14 institutions housing over 13,000 prisoners. Over the next decade, growth continued steadily. By 1940, the BOP operated 24 institutions with a total inmate population of about 24,360. This represented a stable period where the number of prisons and prisoners increased in tandem.

Aside from minor fluctuations, the federal inmate population from 1940 through the late 1970s remained relatively flat (hovering between roughly 20,000 and 30,000 inmates).

Exponential Growth

Starting in the 1980s, the Federal Bureau of Prisons experienced explosive growth due to changes in federal criminal justice policy:

  • 1980s War on Drugs: In 1980, the BOP had 24,000 inmates and 44 institutions. By 1989, the inmate population had ballooned to around 58,000. The War on Drugs primarily drove this surge – stricter federal drug laws, mandatory minimum sentences, and increased drug prosecutions led to thousands of new federal inmates. From 1987 to 1992 alone, the BOP opened 20 new federal prisons to keep pace with demand.
  • 1990s Sentencing Laws: The growth continued through the 1990s. The federal inmate population doubled again, reaching approximately 136,000 by 1999. Much of this growth was “due to efforts to combat illegal drugs, weapons, and immigration violations.” The implementation of the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines (effective 1987) and new federal crime bills in the mid-1990s contributed to longer sentences and more inmates entering the system. By 2000, the Bureau operated over 95 facilities (including newly built prisons and repurposed military bases).
  • Peak and Slow Decline: The federal prison population peaked in the early 2010s. In 2013, it hit an all-time high of about 219,000 inmates nationwide. As of May 2016, the BOP’s population stood at 195,947 men and women across more than 120 institutions. The BOP’s budget also swelled to keep up: in FY 2012, it reached $6.82 billion, second only to the FBI’s $8.1 billion budget within the DOJ. After 2013, the population began to decline due to changes in charging practices, the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010 (which reduced crack cocaine sentences), and later the impact of the First Step Act of 2018 (which, among other things, made more inmates eligible for early release).

By 2025, the federal prison population had decreased to roughly 156,000 inmates, a significant drop from its peak. This decline has modestly eased overcrowding and allowed the BOP to close a few older facilities. However, the legacy of decades of growth is still evident in the Bureau’s operations. Many prisons remain over capacity, and the agency’s budget (around $8 billion in recent years) remains substantial.

Federal prisons today face ongoing challenges. Aging infrastructure requires costly upkeep; some institutions are over a century old (like USP Leavenworth and FCI Atlanta). A 2018 GAO report warned that overcrowding was straining prison infrastructure and adversely affecting safety and inmate programs. Indeed, some prison buildings are “crumbling” and require extensive repairs or replacement.

While the BOP has made efforts to implement reforms and improve efficiency (e.g., through the First Step Act’s programs and expanded use of halfway houses), comprehensive solutions to issues like overcrowding, recidivism, and rising costs have been slow to materialize.

Your Federal Bureau of Prisons Team

If you or a loved one is navigating the federal prison system – whether facing a federal prison sentence, seeking early release options, or dealing with a BOP-related issue – our team can help. We have extensive experience in federal criminal defense and prison advocacy.

Contact us today to schedule an initial consultation with an experienced federal defense attorney and prison consultant. We can provide guidance on BOP policies, sentence reductions, prison preparation, and other federal prison matters to help you achieve the best possible outcome.

Published Feb 22, 2018 by Christopher Zoukis, JD, MBA | Last Updated by Christopher Zoukis, JD, MBA on May 9, 2025 at 2:31 pm

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